To read the full version of this content please select one of the options below:. Other access options You may be able to access this content by logging in via your Emerald profile. Rent this content from DeepDyve. Rent from DeepDyve. If you think you should have access to this content, click to contact our support team. Contact us. Please note you do not have access to teaching notes. For this reason, the second edition features some relatively minor changes to many chapters and a complete rewrite of our account of research philosophy.
Central to the revised text is the methods map see Chapter 4 , which sets out a logical process for researchers to articulate their position in relation to five key aspects of their research philosophy. We have road tested this approach with many colleagues and students to ensure that it is clear and concise. In addition, we have developed a free app to accompany the book and this enables novice researcher to quickly develop a compre- hensive justification of their particular research design in an interactive way.
We would acknowledge that the methods map makes some simplifications and would suggest that for all but the most sophisticated of purposes, this is entirely appropriate. At Heriot-Watt and other universities in the United Kingdom, the term thesis is usually associated with a PhD doctoral degree , while dissertation is the more common term for a substantial project submitted as part of a taught masters degree e.
MSc or an undergraduate degree e. Often thinking about, rather even than writing, your dissertation is the most stressful part of your degree. It does not need to be. Doing your dis- sertation is not unrelated to the rest of the writing you have done during your time at university. Many of the skills you already possess can be applied to the dissertation writing process. Identifying the purpose of your project, expressing originality and significance, setting appropriate goals, and maintaining strong organization will help you to develop a high quality dissertation.
Regardless of the information given in this book the most important advice is to engage with your supervisors! Be sure to speak with them throughout the process of writing your dissertation. Be clear about goals and deadlines. When you meet, have questions prepared and make sure you understand their directions. Be proactive about solving problems, rather than withdrawing. Take notes and use the time wisely. Dissertations have always played a significant role in the awarding of a degree.
Originally universities were established with advanced degrees being offered in the vocations of medicine, law, and theology. Over time, the universities have adapted to accommodate changing economic and social structures and demand for skills. Indeed, Whitehead , p. John Paul II , p. Once, science, engineering and technology, medicine, the law, and divin- ity were firmly established and a balance between the vocational and the liberal was pursued.
Today, some courses may need to recapture some of the values and characteristics of the traditional higher vocations, however, unfortunately, this is not always possible, so often contract trumps covenant in a wide range of contemporary occupations. Far from the demise of the middle class career predicted by some, professionalism and flexibility are highly desirable general features of graduateness; learning to learn and the formation of capacities in general should take precedence over the acquisi- tion of specific content.
In many sectors of our society, science is seen as being little short of infal- lible; anything else must be dismissed as fancy. Even in business journals there is the tendency to trust the so-called hard facts of statistically analysed quantitative data rather than the interpretive results that qualitative analy- sis tends to produce. Introduction to the Second Edition xix The ability to take an imaginative leap, beyond accepted scientific dogma and the entrenched views of academic colleagues, disciplinary boundaries, or even apparent common sense, has been at the heart of a significant number of scientific or technological advances in the last few hundred years.
In universities today, ethical approval processes might challenge the wisdom, or at least the legal probity, of infecting yourself or indeed others. Dance for Two. London: Bloomsbury. McFague, S. London: SCM Press. Van Der Weyden, M. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Whitehead, A. Aims of Education and Other Essays. The befuddlement caused by a range of new terminology relating to the philosophy of knowledge is unnecessary when all that you are trying to achieve is some clarity over the status of any knowl- edge claims you make in your study.
Business and Management sits within the broader context of the social sciences, and this chapter offers a guide to the standard philosophical positions required to specify the particular form of research you plan to undertake. Collectively, these positions will define what we refer to as a research paradigm see Figure 4. For us, a comprehensive articulation of a research design draws together five layers of interlocking choices that you, the researcher, should make when specifying how you plan to execute your research.
The Methods Map in Figure 4. The process of developing a research design begins with the location of your proposed work within a particular research paradigm. Certain methods of data gathering and analysis tend to follow from certain paradigms, although it is important to notice that these implied pathways are not fixed.
What is truly important is your ability to recognise and justify the interlocking choices which represent your own research design. Later chapters will deconstruct and explain the subsequent stages of the Map, namely those choices relating to both data gathering and data analysis.
In passing, we will also look at rhetoric the study of persuasive language and axiology the study of value as a means of rounding out your understanding of some key phrases and concepts.
Whilst these concepts emanate from philosophy, it is not necessary to have studied philosophy in order to make sense of the terminology. In essence, the purpose of setting out your research philosophy is to help signal to other researchers those claims you might make in your findings, and the basis on which you would make such claims.
However, it is highly likely that the same broad research question or objective could have been approached using a very different style of research. All that you are required to do is demonstrate that you engaged in a conscientious selection and defence of what you deemed to be the most suitable approach, given your chosen topic. Historically, certain paradigms may have been used for certain topics and methods, yet it would be foolhardy to dismiss the potential for innovation to be found in combining ideas and mixing methods.
Some of the ideas that follow may at first seem challenging and difficult to work with. As a health warning, we would acknowledge that we have made some simplifying assumptions in the approach that we have set out. Those well versed in the philosophy of knowledge may take issue with some aspects of our presentation here. However, we are confident that the structured approach we are proposing will suffice for the vast majority of individuals tasked with articulating a methods statement.
Articulating a research philosophy When undertaking any research project it is considered good practice to clearly outline the basis for claiming to know what we know.
Kuhn set in place the tradition that once a paradigm is chosen it is advisable for the researcher to remain within it. Hussey and Hussey emphasise the importance of researchers recognising and understanding their philosophi- cal orientations within the paradigm adopted for a specific project.
Kant argued that there are ways of knowing about the world other than through direct observation, and that people use these all the time. This proposition provided the platform for the launch of many of the ideas associated with research philosophy.
Prior to this, objects were considered in isolation, separate, and unchange- able. Kant theorised that things could be considered as objects of experi- ence: phenomena, rather than things in themselves specified negatively as unknown beyond our experience : noumena. Therefore, if human faculties of representation are used to study these phenomena, a priori conceptuali- sations can be envisaged.
For example, if we had only ever had the experience of sitting in chairs before and we saw a stool for the first time, rather than categorise it as unknown, we could conceptualise a priori that it would be possible to sit on a stool just like we do on a chair. Kant also showed how flawless logic can prove the existence of God and at the same time prove that there is no God at all; illustrating that opposing philosophies can be equally logical and at the same time contradictory and incomplete: a salient warning to any emergent researcher defending their philosophical stance.
The roots of research method Gorgias, a fifth century Sophist, is remembered for his provocative apho- risms. The aphorism deals with ontology, epis- temology and introduces the problem of rhetoric and language in a world where communication was shifting from the spoken to the written word.
Plato Phaedrus in BC argued that writing would deteriorate memory, wreak havoc on logical constructions, and create an artificial reality. Before exploring some philosophical concepts first relating to ontology , Table 4. Deduction a priori argument: deriving a proof or using evidence to test a hypotheses. Epistemology The branch of metaphysics that deals with the nature of knowledge, its presuppositions and foundations, and its extent and validity.
Metaphysics The branch of philosophy concerned with the ultimate nature of existence. Ontology The branch of metaphysics that deals with the nature of being and of reality. Methodology The study and application of methods. Paradigm Theoretical framework, within which research is conducted. Philosophy The academic discipline concerned with making explicit the nature and significance of ordinary and scientific beliefs, and with investigating the intelligibility of concepts by means of rational argument concerning their presuppositions, implications, and interrelationships; in particular, the rational investigation of the nature and structure of reality metaphysics , the resources and limits of knowledge epistemology , the principles and import of moral judgment ethics , and the relationship between language and reality semantics.
Reflexivity Critical self-awareness and examination of beliefs and knowledge-claims. In the most basic sense this means that you must articulate whether you see the world as objective or subjective. The term ontology is rarely used beyond academic institutions and it can be difficult to know how to use it confidently. As with much specialist terminology, a brief look at the linguistic components that form the word can help to unlock a more practical meaning.
Therefore ontology is the study of being or reality. In lay terms it may be considered as how we view reality. Outside of science fiction and fantasy novels, we might think of there being only one reality, in which we live, breathe, and die.
Yet the afore- mentioned fictions are often inspired by the thought experiments through which philosophers and theorists question our understanding of reality. The most well-known of these is the brain-in-a-vat scenario, whereby a scientist stimulates a disembodied brain with such precision as to simulate an entirely realistic participation in what we call reality. Does the brain experience reality, or is the experience of the scientist somehow more real?
In more contemporary terms, popular stories such as the Narnia novels or the Matrix film series are based on the premise of stepping into a different reality. In ontological terms, the philosophical notion of solipsism asserts that since we cannot know other minds, the world and those other minds do not exist. Similarly, a nihilist ontology contends that knowledge is impos- sible, and that there is no such thing as reality. A rather more mundane example of an altered reality relates to illness or pain: do we experience the world in the same way when we are suffering?
For example, if you were asked to remove a hot dish from an oven, you would instinctively look to put a protective glove on your hand to perform this task. You would do this because you would expect to feel pain in your hand if you attempted to remove the dish without protection. The pain would be caused by your nervous system reacting to the heat of the dish so as to protect the skin from being burned.
Can it be objectively measured? If it is just our body trying to send a message to our conscious brain that lift- ing the hot dish with unprotected hands is a bad idea, then surely we can override this message and lift the dish anyway?
The theoretical reality of pain, as simply a sensory message to our brains to protect us from harm, versus our experiential reality of pain, as something that is unpleasant and negative, presents the different ways in which ontol- ogy can be considered.
Can suffering even exist without being experienced? As shown by the Methods Map, ontological assumptions can be broadly divided into two fundamental configurations: objective and subjective. Although these terms are far more commonly used, it may be helpful to develop clear distinctions relating to their use in the context of research. An objective perspective might be thought of as looking at reality as made up of solid objects that can be measured and tested, and which exist even when we are not directly perceiving or experiencing them.
In particular, an objective perspective would allow that something as simple as measuring your height would result in the same answer, regardless of who does the measuring. In more complex settings, we might aspire that our objectivity allows us to make the judgements necessary to decide upon the guilt of a defendant in a court of law.
In contrast, a subjective perspective looks at reality as made up of the perceptions and interactions of living subjects. For instance, our response to a particular piece of music varies such that we might find something delightful whilst our friends find the same piece entirely unlistenable. Having established these basic definitions, we can return to the process of researching organizational settings. For instance, take the claim that hap- pier workers are more productive.
This belief, typical of enquiries into the physical sciences, would be described as an objective ontology. An objective ontology thus assumes that reality exists independently of our comprehension of it, and that it is possible to establish and explain universal principles and facts through robust, replicable methods. At this point, you may find yourself agreeing that this seems rather obvious and sensible.
Alternatively, you may feel a sense of discomfort at what you perceive to be an oversimplification of the myriad factors that might influence happiness, productivity, motivation, duty or fear, each of which may be influencing how productive an indi- vidual worker is in a given circumstance on a given day.
A subjective ontology sees facts as culturally and historically located, and therefore subject to the vari- able behaviours, attitudes, experiences, and interpretations — what we call the subjectivity — of both the observer and the observed. This is sometimes known as a relativist ontology, although this is arguably misleading, as one can appreciate the power of subjectivity without necessarily being a moral or cultural relativist. Subjective ontology approaches reality as multiple in the sense that each individual experiences their place and time in the world in a different way.
For example, the subjectivity of an African-American woman in s Mississippi is likely to be entirely different from that of a Native American Indian male in the same time and place although both are likely to have their experiences shaped by severe oppression. You may already notice a problem with the subjective approach, namely that it seems to require a certain objectivity to make a universal claim for a subjec- tive ontology.
This is not a problem that we shall attempt to solve here. A simpler criticism of an entirely subjective ontology would be to say that there are things in the world with observable characteristics, without which they would be something else. For instance, zinc, or ethanol. A subjective approach might counter this by saying that these characteristics are only observable relative to a particular vocabulary, set of assumptions, and people who subscribe to them; that scientific knowledge is widely accepted as true does not mean that it is universally accepted.
Questions of objective and subjective ontologies continue to fuel philosophical debate, perhaps because they are largely irresolvable. Like it or not, when interacting with other people we are constantly making subcon- scious comparisons and judgements, to ascertain our position within that interaction. We may change the way in which we act if we know that we are investigating something, or indeed our actions are being investigated. At the same time, it seems there is an observable reality that exists outside of human interactions, the properties of which can be measured and predicted.
As such, it should be understood that objective and subjective ontologies are not mutually exclusive, and many researchers delineate their positions in relation to these poles, somewhere between the two. If this leaves you uncertain as to which way of studying reality is the most appropriate for your research, then take some comfort from the fact that this is a healthy sign that you are engaging with an exploration of the underlying philosophy of your research.
At the beginning of any project and often towards the end! Ontological questions require careful and continuous answering, and there will always be a valid argument against any position you select. The one certainty is that considerations of how the researcher and the act of researching might unwittingly impact upon that being researched must be expressed, in order for the study to demonstrate an appropriate depth of investigation.
In academic research particularly within the social sciences asserting our ontological position is crucial, since this sets out the basis on which we view reality. All that we can really hope for is a general consensus within the parameters deemed acceptable by a given community, and it is therefore important to recognise that the somewhat manufactured and exaggerated opposition between objective and subjective ontologies acts as a catalyst for critical thinking. Following the Methods Map from our considerations of ontology, we now encounter and must make decisions about our epistemology.
Epistemology Epistemology concerns the way in which we obtain valid knowledge. The Methods Map illustrates four epistemological positions: positivist, critical realist, action research, and interpretivist. For instance, if you are asked for the time, and guess it correctly without a watch, is this reliable knowledge? Or should this guess be verified somehow? Would hearing a time announcement on the radio represent confirmation, or would you be unsettled to know that digital transmission of radio signals introduces a small delay?
The importance placed on the verified accuracy of the time would depend upon the context in which you need confirmation, e. The term epistemology can be deconstructed in a similar way to ontol- ogy. Middle management should be able to act as a symbol of the company that will be a representation of the company in operational issues.
Middle management should be able to become a leader in the management level to which it aspires and to be a liaison between the company's interests with the interests of operations. With regard to the interests of the company to determine whether the company's vision and mission can be applied and then translated operationally middle management should also serve as monitor system for the implementation of programs and systems which the company is spearheading the operations that can be used as a measure of execution of such expectations.
The roles are more detailed as the successor to the role of information, the role of spokesman for the role of entrepreneurial, role of handling the disorder, the role of human resource allocation and the role of the negotiator should be held by management components including mid-level management. Which is at that level will be a process transformation from the formulation phase to the implementation phase.
Korpela , Haneberg Seegers Company have the absolute importance that duty bearers at this level may have a sensitivity to the companies direction and purpose especially in the implementation phase of the strategy that is quite crucial.
Thus an understanding of the role become companies demand to be owned by every individual in the organization is no exception for the stakeholders at the middle management level.
In this case between role clarity and understanding of the role strongly associated with problems of perception of the stakeholders. Hastuti states that "the perception of the role is a degree of understanding of the role of stakeholders, so that the behavior in question knows what to display and how to display it in question.
Davis said that the activities of the leaders or workers depending on their perception of their role. They know the behavior that should be displayed on the situation. According to Allanse and Fleet cited by Hastuti states that in the role process will be possibility occur differences in the understanding of the role; thus behavior, the expected role and the understand of the role will determine someone perception than this perception will determine the achievement beside the skills possessed and cultivated of himself.
Management Role Infact the company has high expectation for its human resources. Mintzberg stated that the human resources roles could be categorized into three forms, namely: the interpersonal roles, informational roles and the roles of decision-making. Mintzberg cited by Setiawan explain Interpersonal roles can be seen from the three forms of role, firstly the role as a symbol of the organization's existence.
The role was played in a variety of activities that are legal and ceremonial. Second: As the leader this role functions is to responsible in motivate and provide direction to subordinates which in reality means "dealing" with all subordinates. The third role is liaison role, this role is the ability of the leader to create extensive network with special attention to those who are able to do something for the organization as well as the various parties have the necessary information by the organization.
Informational roles can be seen from three forms of role, the first is the role of transmitter of information, a leader always receives information from inside and outside the organization, even the information was not to be addressed to him, but to others in the organization. In this case it should be noted that a leader must pass the information accurately and quickly.
Second roles as desimenator information. The information received by a person, may be useful for carrying out the functions of organization, but sometimes distributed to the other person or others in the organization. This role requires deep understanding of the meaning of the received information and the knowledge of the various functions to be held. The third role is an organization spokesman role the person as a chief must provide information accurately to others needs, of course, the information must be in line with what the line of policy and strategy.
The roles of decision can be devided into four types, first as a entrepreneur role, leader should be able to continuously assess the situation faced by the pg. Third resource divider role, this role is related to the authority of a leader who is a stakeholder authority to allocate funds and resources owned by the company to produce products or services as well as other operational problems.
The fourth is a role as a negotiator for the organization, the higher one's position more and more he interacts with various parties outside the organization than with people inside.
In other words, he is more often served as a negotiator for the organization means that a person who is believed to hold office are required to have the ability to identify influential factors for the success of the organization, identify constraints as well as opportunities that may appear suddenly and unforeseen threats. The company has an interest in the ability of its resources that interest is reflected in his decision to give authority and responsibility to elect the resources to be able to carry out its role as expected by the company thus measure the performance of these resources depends on whether they can understand the appropriate role with the expectations given to them from the company.
From this problems it is necessary to do a research of whether the oeganizations individual can understand the role appropriate with the expectations role given to them. Performance Achievement Kreitner put forward in an attempt to predict achievement "Achievement is determined by more than just efort.
Achievement depends on the employees ability and character as well as their perception toward the role. Lawler and Porter is more sharply stated that job performance is a person's success in implementing their role. From the above stetements it is clear that the performance achievement depends on how deeply the person understand their role and their responsibilities. Therefore it is necesasary for company to give information in details about the organizational roles toward every level of management as expectation.
The relation betwen performance achievement result with expectation Ozcan said that the performance of employee in an organization depends largely to the management expectation to the employee. Research to analyze the understanding of the role and expectations of the role performed by Hastuti this research proved that there are differences in the perception and acceptance of the role of role expectations that affect job performance. The research was conducted at PT Industri Pesawat terbang pg.
Based on the arguments above the hypothesis of this study is arranged as follows Based on the arguments above, the hypothesis of this study is arranged as follows; H1 There is a difference between expectations and understanding roles. The expectation role is a normative demand from the leader to his subordinates to carry out the obligations that become his responsibility while understanding the role is the perception by the stakeholders for the role they have.
In some cases someone thinks about what to do based on certain considerations. One of that, is the consideration of the benefits and convenience of someone to do or not do something, as stated by Ajzen quoted by Jogiyanto , this opinion was also conveyed by Razak thus, it becomes a strong reason if there is an influence between expectations and understanding roles, that comes from two different groups.
H2 There is a relationship between understanding the role and Job Performance When a person understands the role carried, he will result a good task implementation because the work or task performed, will be carried out in accordance with the correct rules. The company itself was chosen as an object to see the extent of the middle management to understanding the role, the top management hopes for several reasons, they are 1 PT BosowaPropertindo is a business group that has several business units such as real estate, commercial buildings, hotels, the hospital and contracting business group company are under the Bosowa Corporatin.
It is as one of the well-known group company in eastern of Indonesia. Considering to the limited population, the sampling technique uses census sampling, where the entire population of 60 people in the middle management position, are taken as the sample in this study. The questionnaire are consisted of two form, the first questionnaire was given to the top pg.
The second questionnaire was given to the middle management to state the extent of understanding the role, measured through 10 leaderships according to mintzberg. The third questionnaire is to determine the level of performance of the middle management. Measurement The data in this study were taken from questionnaires. By filling questionnaires using a Likert scale Strongly disagree - Strongly Agree , such as the measurements used in the study.
The data analysis of research results was carried out through several stages.
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