Highlight the installation drive ada0 in this example and select Create to display a menu of available partition schemes:. After the partitioning scheme has been selected and created, select Create again to create the partitions. The Tab key is used to move the cursor between fields. Refer to gpart 8 for descriptions of the available GPT partition types. The Size may be entered with common abbreviations: K for kilobytes, M for megabytes, or G for gigabytes.
Proper sector alignment provides the best performance, and making partition sizes even multiples of 4K bytes helps to ensure alignment on drives with either byte or 4K-byte sectors. Generally, using partition sizes that are even multiples of 1M or 1G is the easiest way to make sure every partition starts at an even multiple of 4K. There is one exception: the freebsd-boot partition should be no larger than K due to current boot code limitations. A Mountpoint is needed if the partition will contain a file system.
The Label is a name by which the partition will be known. Drive names or numbers can change if the drive is connected to a different controller or port, but the partition label does not change. Use a unique label on every partition to avoid conflicts from identical labels.
For instance, use labroot or rootfslab for the UFS root partition on the computer named lab. Partition sizes shown are typical for a 20G target disk. Labels shown here are prefixed with ex for "example", but readers should use other unique label values as described above. After the custom partitions have been created, select Finish to continue with the installation and go to Fetching Distribution Files. This partitioning mode only works with whole disks and will erase the contents of the entire disk.
The main ZFS configuration menu offers a number of options to control the creation of the pool. The automatic ZFS installer currently only supports the creation of a single top level vdev, except in stripe mode. To create more complex pools, use the instructions in Shell Mode Partitioning to create the pool. Disk Info - Disk Info menu can be used to inspect each disk, including its partition table and various other information such as the device model number and serial number, if available.
Force 4K Sectors? By default, the installer will automatically create partitions aligned to 4K boundaries and force ZFS to use 4K sectors. This is safe even with byte sector disks, and has the added benefit of ensuring that pools created on byte disks will be able to have 4K sector disks added in the future, either as additional storage space or as replacements for failed disks.
Press the Enter key to chose to activate it or not. Encrypt Disks? Press the Enter key to chose activate it or not. Partition Scheme - Allow to choose the partition scheme. GPT is the recommended option in most cases. Press the Enter key to chose between the different options. Mirror Swap? Be aware, enabling mirror swap will break crash dumps. Press the Enter key to activate it or not.
Encrypt Swap? Encrypts the swap with a temporary key each time that the system boots and discards it on reboot. Select T to configure the Pool Type and the disk s that will constitute the pool. If just one disk fails the data on the pool is lost irrevocably. Mirroring provides a good read performance because data is read from all disks in parallel. Write performance is slower as the data must be written to all disks in the pool.
Allows all but one disk to fail. This option requires at least two disks. Provides the best performance, but the least storage. This option needs at least an even number of disks and a minimum of four disks. Allow one disk to fail concurrently. This option needs at least three disks. Allows two disks to fail concurrently.
This option needs at least four disks. Allows three disks to fail concurrently. This option needs at least five disks. Once a Pool Type has been selected, a list of available disks is displayed, and the user is prompted to select one or more disks to make up the pool. The configuration is then validated, to ensure enough disks are selected. If one or more disks are missing from the list, or if disks were attached after the installer was started, select - Rescan Devices to repopulate the list of available disks.
To avoid accidentally erasing the wrong disk, the - Disk Info menu can be used to inspect each disk, including its partition table and various other information such as the device model number and serial number, if available. Select N to configure the Pool Name. Select S to set the amount of swap. The installer then offers a last chance to cancel before the contents of the selected drives are destroyed to create the ZFS pool.
If GELI disk encryption was enabled, the installer will prompt twice for the passphrase to be used to encrypt the disks. And after that the initializing of the encryption begins. The installation then proceeds normally. To continue with the installation go to Fetching Distribution Files. When creating advanced installations, the bsdinstall partitioning menus may not provide the level of flexibility required. Once this is done, type exit to return to bsdinstall and continue the installation.
Installation time will vary depending on the distributions chosen, installation media, and speed of the computer. A series of messages will indicate the progress. First, the installer formats the selected disk s and initializes the partitions. Next, in the case of a bootonly media or mini memstick , it downloads the selected components:.
Next, the integrity of the distribution files is verified to ensure they have not been corrupted during download or misread from the installation media:. Once all requested distribution files have been extracted, bsdinstall displays the first post-installation configuration screen. The available post-configuration options are described in the next section. First, the root password must be set. While entering the password, the characters being typed are not displayed on the screen.
After the password has been entered, it must be entered again. This helps prevent typing errors. The next series of menus are used to determine the correct local time by selecting the geographic region, country, and time zone. Setting the time zone allows the system to automatically correct for regional time changes, such as daylight savings time, and perform other time zone related functions properly. The example shown here is for a machine located in the mainland time zone of Spain, Europe.
The selections will vary according to the geographical location. The appropriate date is selected using the arrow keys and then pressing Set Date. Otherwise, the date selection can be skipped by pressing Skip. The appropriate time is selected using the arrow keys and then pressing Set Time. Otherwise, the time selection can be skipped by pressing Skip. The next menu is used to configure which system services will be started whenever the system boots.
All of these services are optional. Only start the services that are needed for the system to function. It is necessary to keep in mind that this is the unbound of the base system and is only meant for use as a local caching forwarding resolver. Only enable this service if the system should be available for remote logins. The functionality of this program is now available in the ntpd 8 daemon.
After a suitable period of mourning, the ntpdate 8 utility will be retired. The next menu is used to configure which security options will be enabled. All of these options are optional. But their use is encouraged. Please note that this will also prevent debugging tools, for instance lldb 1 , truss 1 , procstat 1 , as well as some built-in debugging facilities in certain scripting language like PHP, etc. By default FreeBSD runs syslogd in a secure way with -s.
That prevents the daemon from listening for incoming UDP requests at port With this option enabled syslogd will run with the flag -ss which prevents syslogd from opening any port.
To get more information consult syslogd 8. Destructive actions may not be used unless they have been explicitly enabled. To enable this option when using DTrace use -w. To get more information consult dtrace 1. The next menu prompts to create at least one user account. It is recommended to login to the system using a user account rather than as root. When logged in as root , there are essentially no limits or protection on what can be done.
Logging in as a normal user is safer and more secure. Follow the prompts and input the requested information for the user account. The example shown in Enter User Information creates the asample user account.
Username - The name the user will enter to log in. A common convention is to use the first letter of the first name combined with the last name, as long as each username is unique for the system. The username is case sensitive and should not contain any spaces. This can contain spaces and is used as a description for the user account.
Invite user into other groups? If the user needs administrative access, type wheel here. Shell - Type in one of the listed values to set the interactive shell for the user. The default is usually correct. Use password-based authentication? Use an empty password? Use a random password? Enter password - The password for this user. Characters typed will not show on the screen. Lock out the account after creation? After entering everything, a summary is shown for review.
If a mistake was made, enter no and try again. If everything is correct, enter yes to create the new user. If there are more users to add, answer the Add another user? Enter no to finish adding users and continue the installation. After everything has been installed and configured, a final chance is provided to modify settings.
Use this menu to make any changes or do any additional configuration before completing the installation. Root Password - Described in Setting the root Password. Network - Described in Configuring Network Interfaces. Select Yes to exit to a shell within the new system or No to proceed to the last step of the installation. If the installation is complete, select Reboot to reboot the computer and start the new FreeBSD system.
Do not forget to remove the FreeBSD install media or the computer may boot from it again. As FreeBSD boots, informational messages are displayed. After the system finishes booting, a login prompt is displayed. At the login: prompt, enter the username added during the installation. Avoid logging in as root. The messages that appeared during boot can be reviewed by pressing Scroll-Lock to turn on the scroll-back buffer. The PgUp , PgDn , and arrow keys can be used to scroll back through the messages.
When finished, press Scroll-Lock again to unlock the display and return to the console. Press q to return to the command line after viewing.
Subsequent boots will be faster. The fingerprints of the keys will be displayed, as seen in this example:. FreeBSD does not install a graphical environment by default.
Refer to The X Window System for more information about installing and configuring a graphical window manager. Proper shutdown of a FreeBSD computer helps protect data and hardware from damage. Do not turn off the power before the system has been properly shut down! If the user is a member of the wheel group, become the superuser by typing su at the command line and entering the root password. Then, type shutdown -p now and the system will shut down cleanly, and if the hardware supports it, turn itself off.
Next, a list of the network interfaces found on the computer is shown. Select the interface to configure. If an Ethernet interface is selected, the installer will skip ahead to the menu shown in Choose IPv4 Networking. If a wireless network interface is chosen, the system will instead scan for wireless access points:.
SSIDs found during the scan are listed, followed by a description of the encryption types available for that network. If the desired network still does not appear, check for problems with antenna connections or try moving the computer closer to the access point.
Rescan after each change is made. Next, enter the encryption information for connecting to the selected wireless network.
For security reasons, the characters typed into the input box are displayed as asterisks. Next, choose whether or not an IPv4 address should be configured on the Ethernet or wireless interface:. There are two methods of IPv4 configuration.
Otherwise, the addressing information needs to be input manually as a static configuration. Do not enter random network information as it will not work. If a DHCP server is not available, obtain the information listed in Required Network Information from the network administrator or Internet service provider.
If a DHCP server is available, select Yes in the next menu to automatically configure the network interface. The installer will appear to pause for a minute or so as it finds the DHCP server and obtains the addressing information for the system. If a DHCP server is not available, select No and input the following addressing information in this menu:. The address must be unique and not already in use by another piece of equipment on the local network.
The next screen will ask if the interface should be configured for IPv6. If IPv6 is available and desired, choose Yes to select it.
IPv6 also has two methods of configuration. Refer to rfc for more information. Static configuration requires manual entry of network information. If an IPv6 router is available, select Yes in the next menu to automatically configure the network interface. The installer will appear to pause for a minute or so as it finds the router and obtains the addressing information for the system. If an IPv6 router is not available, select No and input the following addressing information in this menu:.
The last network configuration menu is used to configure the Domain Name System DNS resolver, which converts hostnames to and from network addresses. At least one DNS server is required. Once the interface is configured, select a mirror site that is located in the same region of the world as the computer on which FreeBSD is being installed. Files can be retrieved more quickly when the mirror is close to the target computer, reducing installation time. This section covers basic installation troubleshooting, such as common problems people have reported.
If the hardware has been reconfigured, a custom kernel configuration file can tell FreeBSD where to find things. Some installation problems can be avoided or alleviated by updating the firmware on various hardware components, most notably the motherboard. Motherboard firmware is usually referred to as the BIOS. Most motherboard and computer manufacturers have a website for upgrades and upgrade information. Manufacturers generally advise against upgrading the motherboard BIOS unless there is a good reason for doing so, like a critical update.
The upgrade process can go wrong, leaving the BIOS incomplete and the computer inoperative. If the system hangs while probing hardware during boot, or it behaves strangely during install, ACPI may be the culprit. FreeBSD makes extensive use of the system ACPI service on the i and amd64 platforms to aid in system configuration if it is detected during boot.
ACPI can be disabled by setting the hint. This is reset each time the system is booted, so it is necessary to add hint. This is useful for those who are still wondering whether FreeBSD is the right operating system for them and want to test some of the features before installing. To gain access to the system, authentication is required. The username is root and the password is blank. As the system runs directly from the installation media, performance will be significantly slower than that of a system installed on a hard disk.
This chapter covers the basic commands and functionality of the FreeBSD operating system. New FreeBSD users are encouraged to read through this chapter carefully. Unless FreeBSD has been configured to automatically start a graphical environment during startup, the system will boot into a command line login prompt, as seen in this example:. The first line contains some information about the system. The amd64 indicates that the system in this example is running a bit version of FreeBSD.
The hostname is pc3. The second line is the login prompt. Since FreeBSD is a multiuser system, it needs some way to distinguish between different users. This is accomplished by requiring every user to log into the system before gaining access to the programs on the system.
Every user has a unique name "username" and a personal "password". To log into the system console, type the username that was configured during system installation, as described in Add Users , and press Enter. Then enter the password associated with the username and press Enter. The password is not echoed for security reasons.
Once the correct password is input, the message of the day MOTD will be displayed followed by a command prompt. The prompt indicates that the user is now logged into the FreeBSD system console and ready to try the available commands. While the system console can be used to interact with the system, a user working from the command line at the keyboard of a FreeBSD system will typically instead log into a virtual console.
This is because system messages are configured by default to display on the system console. These messages will appear over the command or file that the user is working on, making it difficult to concentrate on the work at hand. By default, FreeBSD is configured to provide several virtual consoles for inputting commands. Each virtual console has its own login prompt and shell and it is easy to switch between virtual consoles.
This essentially provides the command line equivalent of having several windows open at the same time in a graphical environment. When switching from one console to the next, FreeBSD manages the screen output. The result is an illusion of having multiple virtual screens and keyboards that can be used to type commands for FreeBSD to run. The programs that are launched in one virtual console do not stop running when the user switches to a different virtual console. Refer to kbdcontrol 1 , vidcontrol 1 , atkbd 4 , syscons 4 , and vt 4 for a more technical description of the FreeBSD console and its keyboard drivers.
To disable a virtual console, put a comment symbol at the beginning of the line representing that virtual console. For example, to reduce the number of available virtual consoles from eight to four, put a in front of the last four lines representing virtual consoles ttyv5 through ttyv8. Do not comment out the line for the system console ttyv0. Note that the last virtual console ttyv8 is used to access the graphical environment if Xorg has been installed and configured as described in The X Window System.
For a detailed description of every column in this file and the available options for the virtual consoles, refer to ttys 5. If this option is selected, the system will boot into a special mode known as "single user mode". This mode is typically used to repair a system that will not boot or to reset the root password when it is not known. While in single user mode, networking and other virtual consoles are not available. However, full root access to the system is available, and by default, the root password is not needed.
For these reasons, physical access to the keyboard is needed to boot into this mode and determining who has physical access to the keyboard is something to consider when securing a FreeBSD system. By default, the status is set to secure. This assumes that who has physical access to the keyboard is either not important or it is controlled by a physical security policy.
If this setting is changed to insecure , the assumption is that the environment itself is insecure because anyone can access the keyboard. When this line is changed to insecure , FreeBSD will prompt for the root password when a user selects to boot into single user mode. Be careful when changing this setting to insecure! If the root password is forgotten, booting into single user mode is still possible, but may be difficult for someone who is not familiar with the FreeBSD booting process.
The FreeBSD console default video mode may be adjusted to x, x, or any other size supported by the graphics chip and monitor. To use a different video mode load the VESA module:. To determine which video modes are supported by the hardware, use vidcontrol 1. To get a list of supported video modes issue the following:. The output of this command lists the video modes that are supported by the hardware.
To select a new video mode, specify the mode using vidcontrol 1 as the root user:. FreeBSD allows multiple users to use the computer at the same time. While only one user can sit in front of the screen and use the keyboard at any one time, any number of users can log in to the system through the network. To use the system, each user should have their own user account.
Since all access to the FreeBSD system is achieved using accounts and all processes are run by users, user and account management is important. There are three main types of accounts: system accounts, user accounts, and the superuser account.
System accounts are used to run services such as DNS, mail, and web servers. The reason for this is security; if all services ran as the superuser, they could act without restriction.
Examples of system accounts are daemon , operator , bind , news , and www. However, the more services that use nobody , the more files and processes that user will become associated with, and hence the more privileged that user becomes.
User accounts are assigned to real people and are used to log in and use the system. Every person accessing the system should have a unique user account. This allows the administrator to find out who is doing what and prevents users from clobbering the settings of other users.
Each user can set up their own environment to accommodate their use of the system, by configuring their default shell, editor, key bindings, and language settings. The user name is typed at the login: prompt. Each user must have a unique user name. There are a number of rules for creating valid user names which are documented in passwd 5. It is recommended to use user names that consist of eight or fewer, all lower case characters in order to maintain backwards compatibility with applications.
Commands that allow a user name to be specified will first convert it to the UID. It is recommended to use a UID less than , since higher values may cause compatibility issues with some software.
This can significantly reduce the size of some configuration files and allows users to be members of more than one group. Login classes are an extension to the group mechanism that provide additional flexibility when tailoring the system to different users. Login classes are discussed further in Configuring Login Classes. By default, passwords do not expire. However, password expiration can be enabled on a per-user basis, forcing some or all users to change their passwords after a certain amount of time has elapsed.
By default, FreeBSD does not expire accounts. When creating accounts that need a limited lifespan, such as student accounts in a school, specify the account expiry date using pw 8. Similar to a comment, this information can contain spaces, uppercase characters, and be more than 8 characters long. The home directory is the full path to a directory on the system.
Each user stores their personal files and subdirectories in their own home directory. There are many different kinds of shells and experienced users will have their own preferences, which can be reflected in their account settings. The superuser account, usually called root , is used to manage the system with no limitations on privileges.
For this reason, it should not be used for day-to-day tasks like sending and receiving mail, general exploration of the system, or programming. The superuser, unlike other user accounts, can operate without limits, and misuse of the superuser account may result in spectacular disasters. User accounts are unable to destroy the operating system by mistake, so it is recommended to login as a user account and to only become the superuser when a command requires extra privilege.
Always double and triple-check any commands issued as the superuser, since an extra space or missing character can mean irreparable data loss.
There are several ways to gain superuser privilege. While one can log in as root , this is highly discouraged. Instead, use su 1 to become the superuser. The user running this command must be in the wheel group or else the command will fail. The user must also know the password for the root user account.
In this example, the user only becomes superuser in order to run make install as this step requires superuser privilege. Once the command completes, the user types exit to leave the superuser account and return to the privilege of their user account. The built-in su 1 framework works well for single systems or small networks with just one system administrator.
This software provides activity logging and allows the administrator to configure which users can run which commands as the superuser. FreeBSD provides a variety of different commands to manage user accounts. The most common commands are summarized in Utilities for Managing User Accounts , followed by some examples of their usage.
See the manual page for each utility for more details and usage examples. The recommended program for adding new users is adduser 8. This utility must be run as the superuser. The adduser 8 utility is interactive and walks through the steps for creating a new user account. As seen in Adding a User on FreeBSD , either input the required information or press Return to accept the default value shown in square brackets. In this example, the user has been invited into the wheel group, allowing them to become the superuser with su 1.
When finished, the utility will prompt to either create another user or to exit. Since the password is not echoed when typed, be careful to not mistype the password when creating the user account.
To completely remove a user from the system, run rmuser 8 as the superuser. This command performs the following steps:. Removes any at 1 jobs belonging to the user. If a group becomes empty and the group name is the same as the username, the group is removed. This complements the per-user unique groups created by adduser 8. Any user can use chpass 1 to change their default shell and personal information associated with their user account. The superuser can use this utility to change additional account information for any user.
When passed no options, aside from an optional username, chpass 1 displays an editor containing user information. When the user exits from the editor, the user database is updated with the new information. In Using chpass as Superuser , the superuser has typed chpass jru and is now viewing the fields that can be changed for this user If jru runs this command instead, only the last six fields will be displayed and available for editing. This is shown in Using chpass as Regular User.
The commands chfn 1 and chsh 1 are links to chpass 1 , as are ypchpass 1 , ypchfn 1 , and ypchsh 1. Since NIS support is automatic, specifying the yp before the command is not necessary. Any user can easily change their password using passwd 1. This allows the password to be changed when a user cannot remember the original password. As with chpass 1 , yppasswd 1 is a link to passwd 1 , so NIS works with either command.
The pw 8 utility can create, remove, modify, and display users and groups. It functions as a front end to the system user and group files.
A group is a list of users. A group is identified by its group name and GID. In FreeBSD, the kernel uses the UID of a process, and the list of groups it belongs to, to determine what the process is allowed to do. Most of the time, the GID of a user or process usually means the first group in the list.
This is a plain text file with four colon-delimited fields. The first field is the group name, the second is the encrypted password, the third the GID, and the fourth the comma-delimited list of members. For a more complete description of the syntax, refer to group 5. Alternatively, pw 8 can be used to add and edit groups. For example, to add a group called teamtwo and then confirm that it exists:. In this example, is the GID of teamtwo. Right now, teamtwo has no members.
This command will add jru as a member of teamtwo. The argument to -M is a comma-delimited list of users to be added to a new empty group or to replace the members of an existing group. This means that the user will not show up as a member when using groupshow with pw 8 , but will show up when the information is queried via id 1 or a similar tool.
In this example, the argument to -m is a comma-delimited list of users who are to be added to the group. Unlike the previous example, these users are appended to the group and do not replace existing users in the group.
In this example, jru is a member of the groups jru and teamtwo. In FreeBSD, every file and directory has an associated set of permissions and several utilities are available for viewing and modifying these permissions. Understanding how permissions work is necessary to make sure that users are able to access the files that they need and are unable to improperly access the files used by the operating system or owned by other users.
The read, write, and execute permissions can be represented as the letters r , w , and x. They can also be represented as binary numbers as each permission is either on or off 0. When represented as a number, the order is always read as rwx , where r has an on value of 4 , w has an on value of 2 and x has an on value of 1. It contains the following note:. The original file, as retrieved on March 16, , contains the following copyright and licensing notice:. The modules hashlib , posix , ssl , crypt use the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the operating system.
The pyexpat extension is built using an included copy of the expat sources unless the build is configured --with-system-expat :. The zlib extension is built using an included copy of the zlib sources if the zlib version found on the system is too old to be used for the build:. The implementation of the hash table used by the tracemalloc is based on the cfuhash project:. The C14N 2. Navigation index modules next previous Python ». In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python 3.
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